Iron is a very useful element and is well used today. A lot of our modern day conveniences come because of its uses. It has become a backbone for many structures that we construct. It is also a basic material for many of the innovations we now enjoy. We use iron to make steel and other alloys to answer various needs of our every day lives. Because of the many uses of this interesting element, some have wondered just who discovered iron.

Metals of Antiquity

It is not possible for anyone to say who it was or which people exactly where the first to use this element. We just can’t tell who discovered iron since it has been used by many people even from ancient times. Iron is classified along with other seven metals that are dubbed as The Metals of Antiquity. These include gold, copper, silver, lead, tin, iron, and mercury. All these metals were already known to the ancient peoples of Greece, Egypt, Rome, and Mesopotamia.

Early History

It is known that nobody was able to make use of iron before 1500 BC due to the fact that it was really hard to make. It is further known that iron was put to use in Asia. Thus we know that those who discovered iron were from that part of the world. Hittites from West Asia were a particular people who learned how to use this element. Since they found out that iron weapons were far better to use than the bronze ones they used they made iron smelting and forging a secret.

They were able to keep it all a secret until 1100 BC when the Hittite Empire fell apart. When it did the secret of making iron got out to other people. Though the Hittites were the first to make weapons out of it, we may not surely say that they were the ones who discovered iron.

Other Nations

Other than the Hittites, there were other nations that learned how to use iron. The Jews, Philistines, Kushites, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Assyrians, and Carthaginians all learned how to make and use iron. From 1000 BC unto our present day iron has become the most used metal in the world.

In 800 BC the Aryans invaded the land of India and brought their knowledge of making iron with them. The Chinese only learned how to use it from 700 to 600 BC. Each culture that has learned how to use iron had their own ideas for its different uses. However, we can’t really tell who discovered iron.

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Introduction :

A magnet is an object that produces a magnetic field. It attracts certain other objects to it, and repels other magnets Because magnets have been known to man for so long, it is inevitable that legends have formed regarding its discovery. The word “magnet” is from a Greek term meaning “Magnesian rock.”

Legends of the Discovery of Magnets

One story tells how a shepherd named Magnes discovered magnet about 2,000 BC. He was guiding his sheep along the pastures of Magnesia in northern Greece. Now Magnes was carrying a shepherd’s rod with a metal tip, and his shoes had nails in them. He stepped on a big black rock and next thing he knew, both his rod and shoes got stuck on the rock by their metallic parts. Perplexed, the shepherd got out of his shoes and dug up the ground. He found loadstones underneath. Loadstones are naturally magnetic due to a substanc3e known as FE304. The Greeks later renamed the stone magnesia after its founder or the area where it was discovered.

Historical Discovery of Magnet

Even dismissing such stories, it’s still likely the Greeks were among the first to know about magnets. The classical writers Pliny and Lucretius mentioned them. Because of their ability to attract other objects, magnets were thought to be magical. The Greeks and Romans used them to cure diseases, drive away bad spirits and more.

Some even though they could destroy iron-cast ships. Whenever a ship vanished at sea, the Greeks believed it got sucked in by a mountain of iron. In wartime, they used loadstones to try to sink or disarm enemy vessels.

An important discovery about magnets was their ability to orient themselves. If formed like a needle and placed on water, the magnet would consistently face in a north-south axis. This is said to be the origin of the name “loadstone” = “stone that leads.” Realizing the importance of this discovery, the Chinese invented a marine compass some 4,000 years ago.

Modern Discoveries

In modern times, scientists focused on demystifying magnets. Peter Pregrinus made it the subject of his papers in 1269. In 1600 William Gilbert made a major breakthrough when he discovered that Earth itself is one huge magnet. He made other discoveries such as how to make artificial magnets from wrought iron, and how heat can take away artificial magnetism. Later in the 19th century, Hans Christien Oersted and Clerk Maxwell made a connection between electricity and magnets. When a compass is placed near an electric current, the magnetic needle repositions itself. If the compass is moved around the current, the needle adjusts itself accordingly, as if “obeying” the current.

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Most of us are familiar with the pi. Why wouldn’t we be when it is a staple of the basic math education that we get in high school? But it is safe to assume that most of us are not aware of some important facts about the pi. Familiar as the pi may be to us, questions such as ‘who discovered pi’, ‘how was the value acquired’, ‘why is it a constant’, will leave most of us dumbfounded. Knowing these facts may not be that essential for our everyday living but it won’t hurt as well especially given the fact that the pi is one of the elements that constitute the foundations of mathematics, and therefore of the modern world as well.

Before we go into answering who discovered pi, let’s first tackle a little bit of historical background relevant to its discovery. As early as 1900 BC, geometers from ancient civilizations such as Babylon, India, and Egypt, are already aware of one fundamental property of the circle: that a circle’s circumference is always a little over three times that of its diameter. A more precise value was not available however as each of the civilizations computed pi only within 1% of its actual value.

The individual who can then be said as the one who discovered pi is Archimedes since he is the first one to compute the value of the pi quite accurately. The man who discovered pi did so by comparing the perimeters of two polygons inscribed in a single circle; one is outside the circle and the other inside. The ratio of the bigger polygon’s perimeter with the smaller one’s will then be equivalent to the one between a circle’s circumference and its diameter. Archimedes did this technique to a total of 96 polygons and he got the average ratio, which is 3.14185. The value may not be spot on and only correct up to two decimal places but it is an improvement nonetheless over the computed values that the civilizations before him came up with.

Several individuals followed after Archimedes’ efforts to come up with the value of pi. Mathematicians such as Madhava, Al Kashi, and Ceulen, can be credited as much as Archimedes as people who discovered pi. With each of the said mathematicians computing pi up to tens of decimal places, great strides were made in the quest for the value of the pi.

The men who discovered pi did not only help in pioneering the quest to come up with the correct value of the pi, they contributed greatly to the development of mathematics, whose centrality in modern life will be impossible without the pi.

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The Chinese discovered fireworks and gunpowder about two millennia ago during the Sung Dynasty. A popular story tells how a cook stumbled upon it when he unintentionally mixed sulphur, saltpeter and charcoal. The mixture was combustible: it burned and when stored in a bamboo case exploded. This may be considered the first fireworks ever made. But not for the same purpose as fireworks are now used—in celebrations. The Chinese had a more urgent issue to deal with. They built rockets powered with this new powder and used them well against the Mongols in the 1200s.

A thousand years later, another Chinese man discovered he could make firecrackers. This time it was a Chinese monk from the city of Liu Yung, in Hu Nan province. The monk’s name was Li Tian. His achievement was so significant to the Chinese that they built a temple for him during the Song Dynasty. Since then, the Chinese have been celebrating the discovery of fireworks on April 18 by making offerings to Li Tian.

Why did the Chinese use fireworks and firecrackers? The Chinese have always been keen on finding good luck and keeping bad luck away. Every ritual or custom was meant to either drive away evil or draw in the good. Fireworks used in celebrations and holidays were no exception. The Chinese believed that the noise of fireworks could terrify evil spirits. This would send them away and leave the people safe and happy. Eventually the Chinese came to use the fireworks to frighten malevolent ghosts and spirits on every special occasion. They used fireworks in wedding feasts, births, funerals, birthdays and especially the lunar new year.

Europe discovered the black powder – and therefore fireworks – in the 13th century. The importer is said to have been either the Crusaders or traveler Marco Polo. When the Europeans got their hands on this black powder, the first thing they did was use it in weapons like rockets and canons. It was Italy and Germany that were keen on using it for making fireworks. The Italians made the fanciest pyrotechnics while the Germans focused on the technical aspects. Fireworks became a hit throughout the continent, becoming an integral part of every celebration.

To this day the fireworks tradition continues. China’s Hu Nan province remains a world leader in the manufacture of firecrackers, while Italian families still own the leading brands of fireworks in the west today. Fireworks can cause injuries, especially to children (and drunkards as well). So the sale of firecrackers is regulated in many places including the United States.

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Nowadays, we use different types of oil – for cooking, maintenance of vehicles, and for other things. But where did this really start? Who discovered oil?

A Part of Human History

Ever since the start of recorded history, it was known that oil was already part of man’s existence. Earliest records point to about two hundred million years in the past before the dinosaurs roamed the lands. But there were no actual records of the first person or group who discovered oil.

Some sources of oil come from animal fat. That is why no one is sure whether the oils used during ancient times actually refer to animal fat or the ones that can be found under the ground.

Ancient Writings

Early Greek writings show how oil was already a necessity. It was used to set fire to the fleets of enemies. Its thicker version, named as “Pitch,”was also used as a waterproof blocker for Noah’s ark and the basket where the baby Moses was said to have been placed. Also, oil was used by American Indians during their time for waterproofing canoes and making medicines and warpaint.

Some Types of Oil

Petroleum as we know now came from the Greek word “petra” or “petros” which means rock, and the Latin word “oleum” which means oil or fat. Taken literally, the word petroleum would mean the “oil that comes from rock.”

Crude oil was used about 2500 years in the past in a place in China called as Sichuan. Seems like a long time ago. However, there are some accounts which show the usage of oil wells started around 347 A.D. in the same country.

Historical Records of Oil Wells

As mentioned above, it was in 347 when the country of China made and used the oil wells. According to accounts, the wells had a depth of around eight hundred feet deep, and were connected to some bamboo poles with the use of bits.

In 1264, the mining of the oil’s natural seeps took place in Persia. This was witnessed by a well-renowned man named Marco Polo while traveling through Baku.

During the 1500s, Poland’s Carpathian Mountains became a source for seep oil to provide light for street lamps.

In Baku, Persia, it was written that the oil wells were actually hand dug to about thirty five meters in its depth (which is equivalent to 115 feet deep). This was in the year 1594.

In the year 1735, the oil sands were mined and extracted in France – particularly, in the Pechelbronn field in Alsace.

In Pennsylvania, records show that oil was produced in brine wells in 1815.

Asia also had its own modern well. It was in 1848 when the first oil well was drilled by F.N. Semyenov, a Russian engineer, in the northeastern part of Baku known as Aspheron Peninsula.

Europe also had its share in the oil industry when it had its first oil wells drilled at Bobrka, Poland in 1854 by Ignacy Lukasiewicz.

Just like no one knows who discovered oil, the question on who to give credit to for making the first oil well is still confusing. Some say that credit should be given to the person who drilled the oil well known as “Little Texas” in Germany. Others, say the first drilled oil well is the one in Louisiana, USA. Nevertheless, even with these confusing details, all these oil wells continue to serve its benefits up to now to answer the needs of mankind.

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Gold is a chemical element, the most ductile and malleable of all pure metals in the world. It is found in grains or nuggets in rocks and other natural formations. Gold has a bright yellow color. The hue varies from one type of gold to another, as does its value. Arabian gold and Bangkok gold may be considered superior to Italian or Chinese gold.

Nothing on earth is more fascinating and desirable to humans than gold. Because gold occurs in an uncompounded form, it was probably the first metal ever discovered and used by man.

Discovery and Early Use of Gold

Gold occurs in various parts of the world. No single person discovered gold but there are many traces of its use by ancient peoples. One early reference to it was made by Tushratta, a king of Mitanni (now northern Syria) in 2600 BC. He remarked that there was more gold than dust in Egypt. Such abundance of gold especially in Nubia made Egypt a rich country. By 1500 BC the metal was being used as a means of exchange in international trade. Later in 1200 BC the Egyptians figured out how to beat gold into leaf and mix it with other metals to form alloys.

The Greeks were keener on gold’s monetary value than anything else. By 500 BC, this had led them seek out gold mines everywhere in the Mediterranean and Asia Minor. In war, gold was among the most precious of the loot as when Alexander conquered Persia. Noblemen were buried with golden funeral masks, such as the Mask of Agamemnon recovered by archeologists.

The Romans also sought gold as they needed it to fund their military expeditions. One man took his greed too far. A member of the First Triumvirate, Crassus, invaded the Parthian Empire for his lust for gold. The Parthians defeated him at war and then gave him what he wanted – by pouring molten gold down his throat.

Symbolism of Gold

Gold has long been a symbol for divinity and royalty. Just as silver was associated with the moon, so gold was connected with the sun. If the sun was the king of the heavens, gold was the noblest of all metals on earth. In Greek mythology, gold was sacred to Apollo, the sun god. In alchemy and astrology, the glyph of the sun was circle with a dot in the center. The same was used to symbolize gold. Alchemists believed they could discover gold from lead through special operations. Others said gold symbolized the perfection of the human being.

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While a lot of facts about Venus are known, its actual discoverer is unknown. Among ancient civilizations it was known as the morning star. Pythagoras was the first to realize that both the morning and evening star were the same entity.

Facts and Figures

Venus has a perihelion of 107,600,000 and the aphelion is 108,900,000. The mean is 108,000,000. The rotation is approximately 243 days with a revolution of 0.52 years. It has no satellites and has an average temperature of 459 degrees Celsius. In terms of size, Venus is about the same as Earth.

Surface and Geology

One of the most basic facts about Venus is its size is similar to
Earth. It is smaller by only 650 km. Its mass is also 80% that of Earth. However, Venus’ geological surface is very different. More than 75% of the surface is littered with volcanic plains. There are also several lobate plains in the area.

There are two large landmasses, one on the northern hemisphere and one at the equator’s south side. The northern land is Ishtar Terra. It is about the size of Australia and home to Maxwell Montes. It rises 11 km from the ground and is the highest mountain on Venus.

The southern landmass is called Aphrodite Terra. It is about the size of Latin America. It is characterized by fractures, fissures and numerous fault lines. Other interesting facts about Venus are the farra, which are flat topped volcanic surfaces.

These are about 60 km across and rise more than 1000 m high. There are also unusual surfaces called arachnoids and coronae. The former resemble spider webs and the latter circular in appearance.

Atmosphere

The planet’s atmosphere is composed of 96% carbon dioxide. Other elements are nitrogen, sulfur oxide and argon. It also has elements of helium, neon, hydrogen fluoride and many others. The pressure is 90 times greater than that on Earth. This has resulted in surface temperatures of over 560 Celsius (over 850 F).

One of the most puzzling facts about Venus is that it is much hotter than Mercury, this despite being farther away from the Sun. The prevailing theory is that originally it had an Earth like atmosphere. For reasons unknown the water dissipated and a greenhouse effect occurred.

This led to the increase in gases in the atmosphere. Studies have also shown that the atmosphere on the planet does not change regardless of whether it is day or night. Wind movement is slow but it carries a lot of force.

This is due to the amount of gas and dust in the atmosphere. However there are 300 kph winds that traverse the planet every six Earth days or so.

The cloud cover is permanent, so the surface is not well illuminated. If the gases were taken out, Venus would look very much like the Earth.

A lot of the basic facts about Venus were determined during the days of the Cold War as the US and Russia sent orbiters around it. Today research is still ongoing although it is done in a more cooperative manner among nations.

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The word  zero is attributed to many ancient cultures and is most likely a corrupt version of the Arabic spelling safira which meant it was empty. Coming down from the French cipher and zero, it finally became the word zero. The invention of zero as a number and not just for place position is generally attributed to the ancient Indians. By the 9^th century AD, mathematics calculations that included both division and multiplication used the number zero.  Pingala, who was an Indian scholar, also used zero for binary numbers, which was quite similar to Morse code.

The rules for using zero are now credited with Brahmagupta who was also an ancient Indian Scholar. The book treatise that he wrote known as “Brahmaputra Sidhantha” which translates to ‘The opening of the Universe. This treatise was written in 628AD. Along with rules for zero, the great scholar and mathematician had also laid down rules for negative numbers and algebra.

By the 6^th Century, zero was being used as a means to signify a position. The earliest mention of this arrangement has been discovered in the texts ‘Lokavibhaga’ which dates back to the 5^th century. By the 11^th century, the concept of using zero in the decimal system which used the base 10 finally reached the shores of Europe. This was brought to the European continent by Spanish Muslims, known as the Moors who also bought their knowledge of astronomy and this is the reason, that they are referred as the Arabic numerals. Fibonacci was really instrumental in using the system in Europe and using it for common mathematic problem solving.

Zero now plays a significant role in computing and also other streams of sciences where it can have special significance.

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The number system is extremely old and has been expressed in many ancient cultures for practical uses. Currently the most popular type of number system that is prevalent today is known as the Hindu Arabic numerals. The number system notation development is credited to two great mathematicians from ancient India, Aryabhat (5^th century BC) and Brahmagupta (6^th century BC). The simplest number system where even number is represented by marks is known as the unary numeral system. Here each and every natural number is represented by the number of corresponding marks, much like the tally marks that are still in use. This system is still used for teaching theories in computer science and can be used in practical use, but for smaller numbers only.

The ancient Egyptians and Romans modified this concept and laid down their own numerical system for various practical purposes. Many others like the Mayan system used the base 20 system. The place value system of numbers that has a base of ten uses 10 digits from 0 – 9 for making the positional numeral system work. This system makes it easier for working in arithmetic rather than other numeral systems. For the purpose of computer science, a modified k positional system is used, which is known as bijective numeration.

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Gunpowder is a mixture of potassium nitrate, sulfur and charcoal. It was discovered in ancient China, some say around 8th century AD. A familiar story narrates how charcoal, sulfur and saltpeter were inadvertently joined together in a Chinese cook’s kitchen. There the first fireworks / gunpowder explosion took place. Another theory states that the emperor Wu Di commissioned a team of alchemists in 156-87 BC to discover the elixir of life. Their findings are said to have been recorded by alchemist Wei Bo yang in an alchemical text called “Kinship of the Three”.

Uses of the Black Powder

It seems ironic that the quest for immortality and long life led to the discovery of a destructive modern weapon. Actually, gunpowder’s first use was as a medicine. Chinese physicians used the mixture of charcoal, saltpeter and sulfur to treat skin diseases and repel insects. Then people discovered the black powder could be used to make fireworks. They made firecrackers fueled by this powder for use in celebrations and religious ceremonies. Because the loud sounds frightened animals, the Chinese assumed they would also scare away evil spirits and ghosts. Gunpowder as fireworks were therefore used to drive away bad spiritual elements. Especially when welcoming the new year.

Use of Gunpowder in Warfare

Later on the Chinese discovered an even greater use for the black powder. No doubt the fireworks hurt some people who came near them when they exploded. Why not use it as a weapon? Thus they began using their new discovery against their worst enemy – the Mongolian army.

Evolution of Rockets, Bombs and Cannons

The Chinese made small bombs and mounted them on their arrows. These were the oldest rockets. Not long after they began launching the bombs on their own just from the force of the gas. These were the first genuine rockets. Not content, the Chinese also invented cannons and guns. Both the rockets and cannons could launch faster and farther than the human-propelled arrows. Fireworks were never used in warfare as they were too weak.

Impressed by these weapons, the Arabs and Mongols brought them to Europe in the 11th and 13th centuries. Rockets were used extensively in warfare from then on. The national anthem of the United States even makes a reference to rocket glare. Even today in the age of high technology weapons, missiles are still designed with the basic rocket principles of the Chinese, and gunpowder fires them all.

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There have been many movies that have been made that depict the planet Mars as a source of alien life. Some movies even depict Martians attacking planet Earth. There are many who ask who discovered Mars and how it was discovered. The truth is that for reasons quite obvious we may never know who exactly it was who discovered this planet.

God of War

Mars may be familiar to some as being called the God of war. Both the Greeks and the Romans called the planet as the God of War. The Greeks called the planet as Ares while the Romans called it Mars, but both symbolize the same deity. Since the planet Mars is really visible to the naked eye it was discovered even before any recorded history. Thus we really cannot tell who discovered Mars.

For thousands of years Mars has been visible to humans as a red dot floating in the night sky. There are certain times in the year when the planet came closer to ours. When such times come it would appear like a red burning coal in the sky at night. This of course would arouse such terror among ancient peoples and sky watchers.

The Egyptians even called it Har decher, which means The Red One. The Babylonians called it Nergal which simply means the Star of Death. Though they may have come up with names for this planet, we can’t credit any of these people as the ones who discovered Mars.

The Babylonians discovered the planet in 400 BC, however, the very first people or individual who discovered Mars would have observed it much earlier. They made thorough astronomical observations on the planet. They were even able to make sophisticated mathematical calculations about it. They were able to predict particular astronomical occurrences like eclipses for example. However, their objective for such work is dedicated for both religious and calendrical purposes.

Modern Observations

Though it may seem that the Babylonians have made thorough observations about the planet we can’t credit them as the ones who discovered Mars. In 1609 Galileo was able to observe the planet for the first time using a telescope. We can say that he was the first one who ever made observations about the planet for purely astronomical purposes.

Christian Huygens, a Dutch astronomer, was able to determine in 1659 how long a day would last in Mars. In 1704 Giancomo Miraldi was able to spot polar caps on Mars’ poles. In 1840 German astronomers were able to create the first complete map of this planet.

Further discoveries came along as astronomers continued to observe the planet. Moons, canals, and meteorite were soon to be found in later years. Since the planet is visible to the naked eye we can’t really credit a single person as the one who discovered Mars. The planet has been observed even before recorded history.

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Radioactivity has always been around since it is a natural part of the environment we have. It is said to be emitted by some of those things that we use everyday like the computer monitors and TV screens. Hospitals even use radiation for x-rays and other medical purposes. But who discovered radioactivity and made its usage possible?

The Early Discovery of Radioactivity

A Frenchman named Henri Becquerel is said to be the person who discovered radioactivity. In the year 1896, Becquerel got some naturally fluorescent minerals to be used in an in-depth experiment. The purpose of the experiment was to study the properties of x-rays. The properties were already discovered a year ago by Wilhelm Roentgen, and Becquerel wanted to further examine it.

In the experiment, what Becquerel did first was to expose potassium uranyl sulfate to the rays of the sun believing that the energy of the sun will be absorbed by the uranium and then emit it outwards as x-rays. After exposing the potassium uranyl sulfate, Becquerel put this on some photographic plates that were wrapped in black colored paper.

But because of the natural changes in weather, this experiment failed when it was done in Paris because it was an overcast day.

You may think that failed attempt would let Becquerel give up. However, that is not the case for this person continued to develop the photographic plates.

The next attempt, though, made the images clear and strong, and it successfully proved that uranium actually emitted radiation. Uranium can do this without the help of an outside source to provide the energy like the sun.

This successful experiment was the first discovery of radioactivity which showed its three classes – positive, negative, and neutral radioactivity.

The Introduction of the Term Radioactivity

There was a chemist and physicist named Marie Curie who made a great contribution to the discovery of Becquerel. Curie actually coined the term radioactivity.

Together with Pierre, Marie’s husband, the Curies further examined Becquerel’s discovery. An extraction of uranium was done from ore. And, unexpectedly, the Curies noticed that the remaining ore had more activity than pure uranium.

Based from this observation, the husband-and-wife team concluded that there are other radioactive elements in ore.

After that experiment, the Curies had other discoveries of other elements such as the radium and polonium.

Four more years of work had to be done to process lots of ore for isolating each element in order to understand and determine the chemical properties of each.

The Contribution of another Experimentalist

Aside from Marie Curie (or Madame Curie as known more by others), another experimentalist came to conduct certain experiments relating to radioactivity. This person is none other than New-Zealand-born Ernest Rutherford.

Because of the numerous experiments done, Rutherford was able to examine the properties of radioactivity, and, thus, was able to name these particles, and classify them according to their specifications and abilities. The names given for these properties are alpha, beta, and gamma.

Because of the person who discovered radioactivity, and other contributors who followed, many people now know a little more about radioactivity. Even if it was already part of our atmosphere and environment, there wouldn’t be a greater awareness of its existence if not for Becquerel and the others.

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Known as an odorless, colorless and nonmetallic flammable gas, hydrogen is one of the most abundant elements in the universe. This element is important to the formation of stars belonging in the main sequence. However, the gas is very rare in our planet. The chemical element has various industrial uses. Moreover, the element is important to the discovery of the atomic structure. To learn more about this element, it is best if we start with the history of the discovery of hydrogen.

Historical Background

Who discovered hydrogen? Henry Cavendish discovered the element in 1776. He found out that various elements including hydrogen composed water. Cavendish also discovered the gas from a certain metal-acid experiment that he performed. Antoine Lavoisier named the gas hydrogen in 1783 when he and Pierre-Simon Laplace proved the findings of Cavendish that water could be produced when the gas is burned. The element was first liquefied in 1898 by James Dewar. He did this with the use of a vacuum flask and the regenerative cooling technique Dewar invented. Dewar developed solid hydrogen in 1899.

Additional Information and Other Important Details

This flammable gas is very important to the operations of chemical industries as well as petroleum industries. This gas is needed for upgrading or improving the state of fossil fuels. Aside from this, it is also necessary for the development of ammonia. One of the isotopes of the element is important to some of the operations in petrochemical plants like hydrodesulfurization, hydrodealkylation and hydrocracking.

Aside from the uses of the element in petroleum industries, it is also useful in food processing industries. The element is important to enhance the saturation level of oils and unsaturated fats that are commonly used in margarines. In other industries, hydrogen is essential manufacture methanol as well as hydrochloric acid. Moreover, the gas is needed for processing metallic ores.

In engineering and physics, hydrogen is widely used in atomic hydrogen welding. In addition to this, the element is used in conducting cryogenic studies as well as superconductivity research. It is also important to manufacture airships and balloons.

After learning the various uses of the element, it is necessary to know the hazards associated with the use of hydrogen. It is important to use the gas in a well-ventilated building because it is highly flammable. It is also beneficial to install hydrogen sensors in the place where the element is stored. Aside from the sensors, it is also best to use UV/IR flame detectors.

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Represented by the atomic number 6 and the symbol C, carbon is an important chemical element classified as tetravalent and nonmetallic. It is one of the longest existing elements known today. The most popular allotropes of carbon are amorphous carbon, diamond and graphite. It is widely used in the petrochemical industry, specifically in producing kerosene as well as gasoline. In addition to these interesting details, it is good to learn other valuable information about this all-important element such as who discovered carbon.

The Discovery of Carbon

Who discovered carbon? Although this element was discovered in prehistory, several individuals contributed to a clearer knowledge about its different properties and characteristics. For instance, French scientist Rene A. F. de Reaumur first showed in 1722 that through the absorption of carbon, it was possible to transform iron into steel. By 1772, the father of modern chemistry Antoine Lavoisier discovered that diamonds were in a way one form of carbon. In the textbook that he published in 1789, he classified it as an element.

Additional Facts and Other Interesting Details

People can easily find inorganic carbon in carbon dioxide, dolomites and limestone. Likewise, it is also possible to find this element in methane clathrates, oil, peat and coal. Looking into the Earth’s crust, it is one of the less abundant. In terms of mass, it is the fourth most abundant in the entire universe after oxygen, helium and hydrogen. After oxygen, carbon is the second most abundant in the human body at the rate of 18.5 percent.

Carbon is a highly essential element especially to living systems. It has a number of economic uses including wood and food. Likewise, it is widely used in hydrocarbon forms such as petroleum or crude oil and fossil fuel methane gas. In addition, there are also valuable carbon animal polymers available such as silk, cashmere and wool. Furthermore, it is part of neutron moderators for making nuclear reactors, added to electrodes for producing dry batteries and used as molding material in glass production.

In 1985, the molecule called fullerene was discovered. It was a new allotrope of the element. It comes in nanostructured forms like nanotubes and buckyballs. When mixed with nitrogen and oxygen atoms, synthetic carbon polymers can be transformed into plastics. Moreover, it can also be used to form alloys when combined with iron, such as the case of carbon steel. It also plays major roles in electroforming and electroplating. Extreme caution is necessary when handling carbon because some compounds contain lethal poisons. These include carbon monoxide, cyanide as well as tetrodotoxin.

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Medicine is universal to all mankind. It may even be found amongst animals. For example tigers and dogs eat grass when they have digestive problems. Because sickness is common to all, it is impossible to say that one person discovered medicine. Here we give a brief history of medicine in the ancient world.

Oldest Discoveries in Medicine

Like animals, primitive man used plants as medicine. Animals seem to know what is good for them when they are ill. It may be inherited or instinctive knowledge, or a little bit of both. With prehistoric man it was probably the same thing. Over time with much experimentation, people came to know more and more about the helpful plants around them. These herbs, fruits and vegetables were therefore the first medicine humans discovered.

Discovery of Medicine in Egypt

Herodotus in his Histories praised the ancient Egyptians as “the healthiest of people,” second only to Libyans. He ascribed this to good weather conditions and a sound health care system. Herodotus reported that Egyptian medicine was so advanced that each doctor would specialize in one branch of healing only. Homer supports this when he says in the Odyssey that all the people there were physicians.

Imhotep is believed to be the father of Egyptian medicine. He lived during the third dynasty. He may have written the most important book on ancient Egyptian medical practice: the Edwin Smith Papyrus dating from about 1,600 BC. It is an almost purely scientific work explaining the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases. Other works of historic importance are the Kahun Gynecological Papyrus from 1,800 BC and the magical Eberus Papyrus from 1,550 BC.

Both men and women practiced medicine in Egypt. The first physician to be recorded in history was Hesyre, chief of doctors to the Pharaoh in 2,700 BC. A woman physician, Peseshet, lived in the fourth dynasty and oversaw the schooling o midwives and female doctors.

Medicine in Ancient Greece

The Greeks were among the greatest physicians in early history. Their methods of diagnosis and treatment were founded on the philosophy of the four humors. The four humors or temperaments were analogous to the four elements: fire, water, earth and air. An imbalance of these caused a person to get sick. The man who discovered modern medicine was a Greek, Hippcrates who wrote the famous Hippocratic Oath. It was Hippocrates who discovered many diseases and symptoms for the first time, such as clubbed fingers. His chest surgeries are the oldest recorded in history.

Medicine in Ancient India

The Indians discovered a system of medicine on their own. It was known as Ayurveda and it is still practiced today. Ayurveda claims there are three types of human bodies based on how the elements interact in them. It was/is important in Ayurveda to know a person’s body type in order to treat his or her condition properly. Depending on one’s type, some foods, drinks and herbs are prescribed or prohibited. Ayurveda relies heavily on herbs and also “color healing with crystals, astrology and Hindu religious practices.

Medicine in Ancient China

It was Taoist practitioners who helped discover medicine in China. The early Taoists believed death could be delayed if not prevented. They made experiments in alchemy and while the knowledge now appears to be lost, a lot of the principles survive in traditional Chinese medicine. The major text on medicine was the Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon.

Today many of the old medical theories have been proven false. But others have withstood the test of time. With the strong demand for alternative medicine, traditional forms of healing may be making a comeback.

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If you are thinking in the lines that it truly was Benjamin Franklin who discovered electricity, you may be surprised to know that there are current reports that actually do not support this particular idea.

So who discovered electricity? Let’s check the historical notes.

The Early Greeks

The history accounts of electricity actually date back to a thousand years or more. This may point to the Ancient Greeks who were said to have discovered an attraction between fur and amber when rubbed together.

The English Physician

In 1600, there was a certain English physician by the name of William Gilbert who actually made a very important contribution to the history of electricity. Gilbert was the one who conned and first used the word, “electric.” This was taken the Greek word, “elektron” which actually pertains to that particular force that some substances produce or exert when they are rubbed against one another.

The Famous Father of Electricity

Going back to the known figure for the discovery of electricity, let’s see why current findings seem to show confusion on the belief that it was really Franklin who discovered electricity.

It was in the year 1752 when Benjamin Franklin’s experiment was performed. It was known that Franklin was flying a kite when there was a thunderstorm going on outdoors when electricity got discovered. The discovery was somehow focused on electricity and lightning being related somehow.

Some of the modern scientists think that the experiment done then is just a tall tale since they argue that when a person gets hit by lightning, the results may be fatal.

Perhaps, according to them, Franklin may be in a different location, away from the lightning path.

Nevertheless, Franklin was noted for the discovery which later led to another invention, the lightning rod invention.

After that, the scientist continued to make other experiments and observations on other phenomena that was related to electricity. But then, there were many who think that Franklin didn’t really discover the true nature of electricity.

The Italian Physicist

Alessandro Volta, an Italian physicist, was also written in history as another famous contributor to the use and development of electricity. Volta was known to have created the voltaic pile which was known later to be the electric battery in the year 1800. This was the very first device that produced electric current in a steady manner.

If you would study these things further, you may see that it was actually the Italian physicist who really discovered that there are particular chemical reactions that may produce electricity.

During this time, Volta was also famous for creating the first transmission of electricity. This was made by not only linking connectors together – the positively-charged and negatively-charged connectors, but also using voltage or electrical charge through the connectors.

The English Scientists

In 1831, the English scientist named Michael Farraday invented the electric dynamo. This device was a crude precursor with modern power generators. When word of the invention came out, it opened the doors to a new acceptance of electricity as an important factor in technology.

Around 1879, another inventor emerged. This was none other than Thomas Alva Edison who was known for the invention of the light bulb.

So who discovered electricity? It may still be safe to say Benjamin Franklin. But do not forget the others like the Early Greeks and their observations, and Alessandro Volta who discovered the real nature of electricity.

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There is no arguing that oxygen is the most important element for all of mankind. Our very life is dependent on it as is numerous other organisms that live on our planet. Our dependence on it is one of the things that limit us from exploring our universe since oxygen is not abundant outside of the Earth.

Knowing this dire connection that human kind has to oxygen, it is surprising that only in the eighteenth century did man actually ‘discover’ oxygen. The use of the word discovered must be put into context of course since the discovery of oxygen is unlike other discoveries, such as that of the Americas or that of Australia. This is because man has always intuited through analysis the existence of oxygen; it’s just that no one was able to isolate it from air until the eighteenth century.

The credit for being the men who discovered oxygen goes to three scientists of that century; three scientists who each claimed the achievement for themselves. Their squabble notwithstanding, each of the three scientists are all worthy of the credit since each one of them pioneered the exploration of the element most important to mankind.

First of the men who discovered oxygen was Carl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swede who, in 1772, isolated oxygen by burning nitrates and mercuric oxides together. Knowing oxygen is a combustible gas, he dubbed the new-found element as ‘fire-air’. Two years later, one of the three men who discovered oxygen, Joseph Priestley achieved the same feat by exposing mercuric oxide to the sun. He described the isolated air as one that makes fire burn brighter and a rodent much livelier. A year later, he published these findings in his books concerning properties of air. The last of the three men who discovered oxygen was Antoine Lavoisier who claimed that he discovered oxygen independently through his own experiments.

If being the sole discoverer meant basing solely on the years on which the each of three men discovered oxygen, Scheele would have been the unequivocal discoverer of oxygen. But since being the first academic publisher concerning oxygen counts a lot, Priestley has always been regarded as the one who discovered oxygen. Scheele and Lavoisier come in second, for their pioneering studies on the elements properties that led to further knowledge concerning oxygen.

Oxygen is the most important thing in the universe for us humans and it is only befitting that we be aware of the men who discovered oxygen labored to understand deeply the very element that we breathe in and breathe out every moment of our life.

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